Circumcision, the surgical removal of the foreskin from the penis, is one of the oldest and most widely practiced procedures in human history. Globally, it is estimated that roughly 30 – 39 percent of males are circumcised, with motivations spanning health benefits, religious obligation, and cultural identity. While the practice is common in certain parts of the world, it remains a subject of debate due to differing perspectives on its benefits, risks, and ethical implications.
Medical benefits and risks
More significantly, evidence indicates that circumcision may lower the risk of acquiring certain sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV, particularly among heterosexual men in high-prevalence regions. The World Health Organisation (WHO) therefore recommends voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) as part of a comprehensive HIV prevention package.
In South Africa, circumcision is relatively common, although prevalence varies by region and population group. The government strongly promotes medical male circumcision (MMC) as an HIV prevention strategy. According to the Western Cape Government, MMC is safely available in both public clinics and private hospitals across South Africa. The service is provided free of charge in the public sector and is performed by trained medical professionals to ensure safety and hygiene.
Circumcision is also associated with a reduced risk of penile cancer, a rare but serious condition, and may lower the risk of cervical cancer in female partners due to decreased transmission of human papillomavirus (HPV).
In addition to disease prevention, circumcision can address specific medical conditions. For example, phimosis – a condition where the foreskin cannot be retracted – can lead to pain, infection, and difficulty with hygiene. In such cases, circumcision may be advised as a treatment option. Similarly, recurrent balanitis (inflammation of the glans) may also be managed with this procedure.
However, circumcision is not without risks. As with any surgical intervention, complications can occur, though they are generally rare when performed under proper medical conditions. These risks include bleeding, infection, and, in very rare cases, more serious injury.
Ethical considerations
Critics argue that routine circumcision, particularly in infants who cannot consent, raises ethical concerns. They question whether the potential benefits justify performing an irreversible procedure on individuals who are unable to make their own medical decisions.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not recommend routine circumcision for all newborn males. While they state that the preventive health benefits outweigh the risks, the benefits are not significant enough to recommend universal, routine, or universal circumcision. The decision is considered a personal one for parents. Parents of newborns therefore need to consider medical evidence, local disease prevalence (e.g., HIV), cultural and religious values, and potential benefits/risks. They should also seek counselling from a clinician about pain management, procedure timing, and proper technique/sterile setting and understand consent forms, follow-up care, and signs of complications.
Religious beliefs and practices
PubMed Central explains that religious traditions provide some of the strongest motivations for circumcision. In Judaism, circumcision – known as brit milah – is a fundamental covenantal ritual performed on male infants on the eighth day after birth, unless medical reasons delay it. It symbolises a sacred agreement and identity within the faith community. The ritual is typically conducted by a trained practitioner and is often accompanied by prayers and celebration.
Hinduism generally does not practice or encourage routine male circumcision, as it is not prescribed in its scriptures. While there is no strict religious prohibition, the practice is often culturally discouraged and historically linked with other religious communities in India. However, circumcision is accepted when it is medically necessary.
In Islam, male circumcision (called khitan) is commonly practiced and is seen as part of religious identity and cleanliness. It is considered part of fitrah, meaning the natural state of human beings. It is also linked to the teachings of Prophet Muhammad and the tradition of Prophet Abraham. It is not directly mentioned in the Qur’an, but it is strongly encouraged in Islamic teachings and is practiced by most Muslim communities. The age when it is done can be different depending on culture, but it is usually done when a baby is young, and sometimes when a boy is older.
According to UNAIDS.org and academic research and public health organisations, most mainstream Christian denominations – including Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions – do not require physical circumcision as a religious practice for believers. Instead, many interpret New Testament teachings, particularly those associated with the Apostle Paul, as emphasising “circumcision of the heart,” meaning spiritual transformation rather than adherence to physical ritual.
However, male circumcision is practiced in some Christian communities, particularly among the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and certain African Christian populations. In these contexts, the practice is often understood as a cultural tradition with historical and regional roots, sometimes connected to biblical heritage, rather than a universal doctrinal requirement of Christianity. Additionally, Christian tradition holds that Jesus was circumcised in accordance with Jewish law.
Cultural influences and social norms
Some religions and belief systems don’t require circumcision, but people may still choose to do it because of cultural traditions. (On the other hand, some groups actively oppose it, viewing it as unnecessary or as a violation of bodily autonomy.)
Cultural factors play an important role in how common circumcision is. In many societies, it is seen as a rite of passage that marks the move from childhood to adulthood. This is especially true in some parts of Africa, where circumcision is a key part of initiation ceremonies. These rituals have strong social meaning, helping to show maturity, strengthen group identity, and gain acceptance in the community. In places where circumcision is the norm, men who are not circumcised may face stigma, discrimination, or bullying.
In other cultural contexts, circumcision is linked to notions of hygiene, masculinity, or social norms. For instance, in countries like the United States, circumcision became widespread in the 20th century, partly due to Victorian-era beliefs about cleanliness and disease prevention. Over time, it became normalised, with many parents choosing the procedure for their sons regardless of religious affiliation. In contrast, many European countries have low circumcision rates, reflecting different cultural attitudes and medical guidelines.
A global practice at the crossroads of science, culture, and belief
When everything is considered, circumcision is shaped by medical, cultural, and religious factors. While it may offer certain health benefits and carry some risks, it is generally not considered necessary for everyone, so medical organisations encourage informed, case-by-case decisions. It also holds significant cultural and religious meaning in some communities, though interpretations vary across faiths. Ultimately, circumcision is a complex and debated issue that requires balancing scientific evidence with ethical considerations and respect for cultural and religious diversity.